The Great White Shark (Carcharodon carcharias): Guide to the Elasmobranch

The great white shark is a key species in the health of the world's oceans. Throughout history, human perception of this predator has oscillated between fear and fascination. This article examines this mighty marine hunter from a scientific and cultural viewpoint, debunking many of the misconceptions surrounding it.

Common names for the great white shark

The great white shark species is known by various names across its range. In Spanish, the most common are simply "tiburón blanco" and "gran tiburón blanco", the latter influenced by the English name, "great white shark". The term "white" is due to some older individuals, over time, the black tone of their back lightens to a light gray, which, combined with the white belly, gives them the appearance of being white. And since they are sharks, they continue to grow throughout their lives, and the older they get, the bigger they become, hence the term "great white".

In Spain, the traditional name, of medieval origin, identifies it as "jaquetón" (augmentative of "jaque", threat), a name that, along with various adjectives, is also applied to many other species of the family Carcharhinidae. The name "jaquetón blanco" is also used, which is a combination of the previous name with "tiburón blanco", which is more popular today. However, the term "marrajo", although sometimes mentioned, can lead to confusion with other species of sharks.

Taxonomy and classification

The great white shark, also known as jaquetón and in many references indicated as the great white shark, is a large cartilaginous fish that belongs to the Lamnidae family, within the Lamniform order. Its habitat encompasses the warm and temperate waters of most of the world's oceans. It is important to note that this species, Carcharodon carcharias, is the only one still persisting in the Carcharodon genus. However, its situation is not entirely stable, as globally it is considered Vulnerable according to the classification of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

In 1758, Carl Linnaeus first named the great white shark as Squalus carcharias. Then, in 1833, Andrew Smith gave it the generic name Carcharodon and, in 1873 this generic name was linked with Linnaeus' specific name, resulting in the current scientific name Carcharodon carcharias.

The word "Carcharodon" given to the great white comes from the Greek καρχαρίας (karcharías), meaning 'sharp' or 'toothed', and οδούς (odous), meaning 'tooth'. The great white shark belongs to the Chondrichthyes class, which represents one of the oldest vertebrate lineages, dating back more than four hundred million years. Within the Chondrichthyes, sharks constitute approximately 45% of the known Elasmobranchii species, including many mid and apex oceanic predators.

Scientific description and taxonomic name

Carcharodon carcharias, commonly known as the great white shark, belongs to the order of Lamniformes. It is one of the most formidable predators in the ocean, easily recognized by its large size and distinctive shape.

Classification of the Great White Shark: Carcharodon carcharias

• Kingdom: Animalia
• Phylum: Chordata
• Class: Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish)
• Order: Lamniformes
• Family: Lamnidae
• Genus: Carcharodon
• Species: Carcharodon carcharias

The great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias) belongs to the Lamnidae family, while the bull shark (Carcharhinus leucas) belongs to the Carcharhinidae family. Although both belong to the Chondrichthyes class and are cartilaginous fish, they are not directly related beyond the order level (Lamniformes for the great white shark and Carcharhiniformes for the bull shark).

Phylogenetic relationships with other sharks

The great white is closely related to other lamnid sharks, such as the mako and the basking shark. These phylogenetic links highlight evolutionary similarities that have adapted these animals to be supreme hunters of the sea.

Characteristics of the great white shark: anatomy and physiology

Physical Structure and Anatomical Adaptations

The body of the great white shark is designed to be an efficient aquatic hunter. It has a robust and fusiform body that allows it to cut through the water with great speed and agility. Its triangular and serrated teeth are perfect for tearing its prey. It is a large cartilaginous fish, being one of the largest predators in the aquatic environment and the seas, along with orcas (Orcinus orca) and the giant squid (Architeuthis dux).

Among its distinctive features are the nostrils, or nares, which are very narrow, while its eyes are small, circular, and completely black. Unlike some shark species, it lacks a nictitating membrane or third eyelid, but uses extraocular muscles to turn its eyes completely inward, protecting them while feeding.

On the sides of the head, there are five gill slits, followed on the body by a pair of well-developed, triangular pectoral fins, as well as a pair of smaller pelvic fins near the caudal fin. The caudal fin is highly developed, as is the large dorsal fin on its back, which has a distinctive and recognizable shape. Additionally, two other small unpaired fins, the second dorsal and the anal, are located in the midline and closer to the tail, completing the overall appearance of this magnificent animal.

Lorenzini Ampullae in the Great White Shark

This shark is equipped with sophisticated sensory systems, including the Lorenzini ampullae, allowing it to detect electromagnetic fields generated by other organisms, which is crucial during hunting.

The nerve endings at the front end, corresponding to the neuromasts of the lateral line, detect vibrations in the water, guiding the animal towards potential prey causing these disturbances. The receptors known as Lorenzini ampullae, located around its nostrils, enable it to capture electrical fields of varying frequencies.

Olfactory System: How Does It Smell?

The great white shark's sense of smell is one of its most developed senses, giving it the ability to detect tiny amounts of blood from miles away. The detection of blood attracts and makes it more aggressive. It can also distinguish between different concentrations of odorous particles, facilitating its orientation towards food. Although one would expect it to have a large number of genes related to the sense of smell, the sequencing of its genome did not reveal this fact. Instead, it has been proposed that it possesses very conserved or enriched gene sequences related to odor detection, as well as a family of alternative genes that play an important role in this function.

Carcharodon carcharias also has an auxiliary olfactory reception organ, the vomeronasal organ, for which it possesses fourteen genes for the vomeronasal receptor, indicating a higher regulation of the odor detection process. Additionally, a conserved gene sequence has been found that could be related to compensating for the few olfactory gene sequences.

This shark's eyesight is also well-developed and plays a crucial role in its hunting strategy, particularly in its final approach to prey. Its eyes, green in color and side-oriented, allow it to detect movements in its environment and perform its peculiar stalking and attacking pattern from below the prey. However, its ability to look straight ahead, like humans, is limited.

Skin Color

Although it is known as "jaquetón," this species only has a white tone on its ventral part, while its back is gray or bluish. This coloration pattern, typical of many aquatic animals, serves a camouflage function both in sunlight, seen from below, and in the dark ocean depths, seen from above. This simple adaptation is highly effective for blending into the environment. Additionally, the edge of the ventral part of the pectoral fins and the armpit area are tinged with black. The skin of these sharks is rough due to the hard scales called dermal denticles, which have a sharp shape and help reduce water resistance.

However, the designation of "white shark" might make sense in the case of sighting albino specimens of this species, although they are extremely rare. In 1996, a young female barely 145 cm long was captured off the coast of Eastern Cape, South Africa, exhibiting this rare characteristic.

How Many Teeth Does the Great White Shark Have?

The great white shark has a short and thick snout, with a large mouth containing two hundred twenty-two teeth and forty-five vertebrae of Carcharodon hubbelli. The teeth of Carcharodon carcharias are impressive: large, serrated, and triangular, with notable width and length.

Unlike other sharks, they do not have diastema (spaces between the teeth) or size reduction in any tooth; the entire jaw is provided with aligned teeth, ready to grasp, cut, and tear. Behind the two main rows of teeth, as in all sharks, there are two or three additional teeth continuously growing to compensate for the frequent loss of teeth, which are replaced by new rows throughout the shark's life. These teeth are embedded in the connective tissue of the jaws, lack roots, and have a bifurcated base, giving them a distinctive arrowhead appearance.

How Big Can a Great White Shark Get?

Adult great white sharks typically range from 5 to 7 meters in length, with females generally being larger than males. Exceptional cases of individuals exceeding these measurements have been documented, but the accuracy of such reports is questionable due to the lack of reliable evidence. For decades, two great white sharks have been cited as the largest ever caught, though there are doubts about the veracity of these reports.

Sightings of great white sharks measuring 7 to 10 meters in length were once considered relatively common, but the accuracy of these reports has been questioned by several researchers. Most scientific literature supports a maximum length of around 6 meters for these animals. Despite numerous reports of exceptionally large great white sharks, verified measurements generally fall between 6.1 and 6.7 meters.

Weight of the Great White Shark

It has been suggested that the largest possible size for a great white shark is around 7 meters in length and about 2 tons in weight. Reports suggesting much larger sizes are usually considered doubtful. The largest properly documented catch was a female measuring 6.1 meters, captured in 1988 near Prince Edward Island.

As for weight, it can vary depending on the shark's recent feeding, but it is estimated that adults can weigh up to 2 tons. The largest specimen officially recognized by the International Game Fish Association was a 1208-kilogram specimen caught in 1959 in southern Australia.

The Largest Great White Sharks in History

The Cojimar Shark

Information about the "Cojimar shark" refers to a widely known but highly debated report in the scientific community. This capture, often cited, took place in 1945 near Cuba, claiming the great white shark measured about 6.4 meters and weighed approximately 3,324 kilograms. However, many experts dispute these data due to the lack of standardized measurement methods and precise photographic documentation at that time.

This case is a classic example of how early records of sharks could be exaggerated or incorrectly documented due to the technical limitations of the time. In more recent studies, with more advanced and rigorous technologies and methods, reliably documented great white sharks tend to be smaller than this reported specimen. Although large specimens have been recorded, such as the 6.1-meter one captured near Prince Edward Island in 1988, they rarely approach the sizes and weights reported in old anecdotes.

The story of the "Cojimar shark" remains a topic of interest for both science and the general public, highlighting the evolution of marine research and how it has improved our understanding of these mighty marine animals. This narrative also serves as a reminder of the importance of scientific accuracy and verification in wildlife studies.

The Great White Shark of Prince Edward Island

The largest correctly documented female of Carcharodon carcharias was captured in 1988 near Prince Edward Island, Canada, and measured 6.1 meters (20 feet) in length. This record is supported by the Canadian Shark Research Centre and is one of the most reliable and confirmed in the history of studies on this species. Additionally, there are reports of even larger great white sharks, although many of these are not confirmed or are questionable due to approximate estimations and the circumstances under which the measurements were taken The Daily Jaws, White Shark Divers.

Habitat and Distribution

Predominant Geographical Areas and Preferred Habitats

The great white shark is found in almost all temperate oceans around the world, from the coasts of Australia to the North Atlantic, inhabiting areas close to the shore, specifically on the continental shelf, where the waters are shallower and marine life is abundant due to the presence of light and currents. However, they are not found in the Arctic and Antarctic oceans despite the large amount of food available there. This is due to their advanced metabolism, which allows them to maintain a body temperature higher than the surrounding water, but not high enough to inhabit these extremely cold areas.

Great white sharks are common in a wide variety of marine areas. They can be found in the waters of the Lesser Antilles and parts of the Greater Antilles, as well as in the Gulf of Mexico up to Florida and Cuba, and along the East Coast of the United States up to Newfoundland. They are also frequent in the coastal strip extending from Rio Grande do Sul to Patagonia, both in the Pacific and the Atlantic. In North America, they are sighted from Baja California to southern Alaska, especially during exceptionally warm years. Additionally, they are found in Pacific archipelagos such as Hawaii, Fiji, and New Caledonia.

In Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, they are regularly sighted, especially in the Great Barrier Reef area. They are also found in northern Philippines and along the Asian coastline, from Hainan to Japan and Sakhalin Island. Other common places include Seychelles, Maldives, South Africa, particularly in areas near the mouths of the Congo and Volta rivers. Finally, they can be observed in the coastal area extending from Senegal to England, with a notable concentration in the Cape Verde and Canary Islands, and even entering the Mediterranean and Red Seas.

These marine predators usually stay away from the coast, except in areas with a notable concentration of prey like tuna, seals, and penguins. Generally, they stay near the surface but can occasionally dive to depths of up to a kilometer.

Occasionally, Carcharodon carcharias sightings can occur in the waters of Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Sea of Okhotsk.

Seasonal Migrations

Great white sharks prefer cold and temperate waters and are known to undertake long migrations to hunt or reproduce, moving between coastal zones and the open sea according to the seasons and food availability.

Recent studies have revealed interesting migratory patterns in great white sharks. For example, some individuals from California migrate to an area between Baja California and Hawaii, known as the "White Shark Café," where they spend a significant part of the year before returning. Additionally, it has been observed that these sharks can undertake long-distance migrations, such as an individual tagged in South Africa that traveled to the northwest coast of Australia and then returned in less than nine months, covering a distance of 20,000 kilometers. These migrations challenge previous beliefs about the territorial behavior of great white sharks and suggest the possibility of interactions between populations previously considered independent. While the exact reasons for their migrations are not fully understood, hypotheses related to seasonal feeding and mating have been proposed.

National Parks and Protected Areas where the Great White Shark is Found

The great white shark is commonly found in several protected areas, national parks, and marine reserves around the world. Some of the most frequent locations include:

1. Galapagos Marine Reserve, Ecuador: This protected area is famous for its biodiversity and is a key spot for great white shark sightings due to its marine life-rich waters.
2. Paracas National Reserve, Peru: Located on the southern coast of Peru, this reserve protects important marine ecosystems, including the presence of great white sharks in its waters.
3. Guadalupe Island Marine Protected Area, Mexico: Known as one of the best places in the world for great white shark sightings, especially for cage diving activities.
4. Channel Islands National Park, California, USA: This marine park is another significant site where great white sharks are regularly spotted, benefiting from the area's nutrient-rich currents.
5. Great Barrier Reef, Australia: Although more famous for its coral reefs, it is also an important habitat for great white sharks, particularly in its southern sections.
6. Gansbaai Natural Reserve, South Africa: Known as the world capital of great white sharks, this area offers numerous sightings and opportunities for cage diving to observe these predators up close.
7. Stewart Island Marine Reserve, New Zealand: The waters around this island are frequented by great white sharks, attracted by the abundance of seals and other marine animals that form part of their diet.

These protected areas not only serve for the observation and study of great white sharks but also play a crucial role in the conservation of the species, providing safe havens from threats such as overfishing and habitat degradation.

Behavior

Feeding and Hunting Patterns of Great White Sharks

Great white sharks primarily feed on fish and marine mammals such as seals and dolphins. They use ambush techniques, attacking from below with great speed and power.

Great white sharks are not simple "killing machines" as popularly believed. To capture large marine mammals, which constitute the base of their diet, they use an ambush tactic: positioning themselves several meters below their prey, using the dark color of their back as camouflage. When they attack, they rise quickly and bite the prey in the belly. If the prey is small, like a sea lion, they kill and swallow it whole; if it is large, they tear off large chunks which they then ingest. The presence of blood attracts other sharks to the area.

In the Mediterranean, their diet mainly includes bluefin tuna, emperors, sea turtles, cetaceans, and the monk seal, although the latter is almost extinct in that region. Attacks on humans are rare and usually occur in deep waters, far from the coast. Most attacks occur at dawn or dusk when there is insufficient light to penetrate the depths, facilitating the shark's surprise attacks.

Additionally, great white sharks also consume carrion, especially from dead whales. Near the coast, they sometimes ingest floating objects by mistake, such as car license plates. They are solitary animals, although they are occasionally seen in pairs or small groups looking for food. Young sharks feed on fish and rays, while adults prefer marine mammals such as seals and sea lions, though they also hunt dolphins, penguins, and sea turtles in the absence of pinnipeds.

Behavior with Other Great White Sharks and Communication

Little is known about the intraspecific interactions of great white sharks, that is, how they relate to other sharks of the same species, including their mating behavior. It has been suggested that mating might occur after several individuals share a large food source, such as a whale carcass.

Although they were thought to be solitary, recent studies show that they can engage in complex forms of social interaction and communication among themselves.

Reproduction and Life Cycle

Reproduction of the Great White Shark

The great white shark is ovoviviparous; embryos develop in eggs that remain within the mother until they are ready to hatch.

Although only a few pregnant females have been captured, it is known that great white sharks prefer to reproduce in temperate waters, in spring or summer. They are ovoviviparous, meaning their eggs hatch inside the uterus. They have a slow reproductive cycle, and the embryos practice oophagy: the eggs remain in the uterus for four to fourteen weeks until they hatch, at which point the strongest pups devour their weaker siblings and the unhatched eggs. Gestation lasts approximately a year. At birth, the pups, which are about 12 decimeters long and have serrated teeth, quickly move away from their mother to avoid being eaten. From then on, they lead a solitary life and grow rapidly, reaching two meters in their first year of life.

Males reach sexual maturity at four years old, when they measure around 3.8 meters, although some may mature at 2.5 meters. They are distinguished by the extensions of their pelvic fins, which serve as copulatory organs. Females, on the other hand, cannot reproduce until they measure between 4.5 and 5 meters, and their fertile period is short, resulting in a low reproductive rate.

How Long Does a Great White Shark Live: Its Lifespan

Although it was previously thought that great white sharks lived between fifteen and thirty years, a 2014 study by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Massachusetts revealed that they can live more than seventy years. This study, based on carbon-14 dating of the vertebrae of several specimens, found that the oldest shark was 73 years old, while the oldest female was about 40 years old.

This information highlights the complexity and slow pace of life of great white sharks, as well as the need for protection due to their low reproduction rate and longevity.

Development from Birth to Maturity

Juveniles are born fully formed and capable of hunting almost immediately. They reach maturity after 15 years and can live up to 70 years or more.

Natural Enemies of the Great White Shark: What Are Their Predators?

Orcas can pose a threat to great white sharks. A documented case occurred on October 4, 1997, in the Farallon Islands, where a 6-meter female orca, known as Ca2, attacked and killed a great white shark. Although the exact size of the shark could not be determined because it was torn apart, it is estimated that it was a young specimen of approximately 3 meters.

Contrary to popular belief, orcas do not usually attack adult great white sharks but prefer younger ones, which are easier to capture. It is believed that the documented attack was due to competition for prey, as both predators have similar feeding habits. This competition leads to orcas displacing sharks to areas without cetaceans. The California coast is an example of a region where both species coexist, as well as in the western Pacific, possibly Japan, the southwestern Atlantic, some areas of Australia, the Mediterranean, and New Zealand waters.

Besides orcas, young great white sharks can fall prey to tiger sharks, bull sharks, and saltwater crocodiles off the Australian coasts. Cannibalism among great white sharks is also known, where larger ones can prey on smaller ones.

And, of course, humans are the main enemy or predator of great white sharks. Humanity has plundered the oceans for decades, and white sharks have suffered greatly due to overfishing, habitat destruction, and pollution.

Ecological Interactions

Role of the Great White Shark in the Food Chain

It acts as a super predator, maintaining the balance of prey populations and helping the overall health of the marine ecosystem.

Relationship with Other Marine Species

Its presence influences the behavior of other species, including other predators and prey in its environment.

Fossil Records of the Great White Shark

Fossil records of the great white shark have been found dating back to the Miocene, sixteen million years ago, according to the oldest known fossils. However, its phylogeny, that is, its evolutionary relationship with other species, remains a topic of debate among scientists.

Initially, it was believed that it shared a common ancestor with the megalodon, a prehistoric shark that, in turn, comes from other prehistoric sharks like Cretolamna and Otodus, due to the physical and size similarities between them. This led to the hypothesis that the great white and the megalodon were closely related, and even the name Carcharodon megalodon was given to the latter. However, a new theory suggests that the great white shark and the megalodon are distant relatives, and that the great white is more closely related to the mako shark than to the megalodon.

This idea is supported by the discovery in 1988 of a complete set of jaws with 222 teeth and 45 vertebrae belonging to a shark species named Carcharodon hubbelli. Additionally, new hypotheses suggest that the megalodon might be related to the genus Carcharocles, which includes other species of sharks, such as Otodus obliquus, an ancient representative of the extinct genus Carcharocles.

There are even theories suggesting that it could descend from a species known as Carcharodon orientalis, considered a missing link in its evolution. The similarity between the teeth of the megalodon and the great white indicates evolutionary convergence, but not necessarily a direct genetic relationship.

Despite these investigations and theories, scientists still debate the exact origin of the great white shark. In the southeastern Argentine beaches, like Miramar and Mar del Sud, Carcharodon fossil remains have been found thanks to the collaboration of tourists and sport fishermen.

Is the Great White Shark Endangered?

Due to their wide distribution, it is difficult to estimate the exact number of great white sharks that exist. However, factors such as their low population density, slow reproduction rate, long infancy, and low life expectancy contribute to the species not being abundant. Sport fishing has increased over the past thirty years, influenced by the popularity of movies like Steven Spielberg's "Jaws" (1975), leading to the great white shark being considered threatened or endangered in several regions.

Conservation Status

The IUCN Red List listed the great white shark as a species of insufficient data in 1990 and since 1996 has classified it as vulnerable. Appendix II of the CITES Convention considers it vulnerable if not exploited rationally. Conservation efforts should focus on wild populations, as captive breeding has proven unviable due to their nomadic nature. A notable example was a young female named Sandy who, after being exhibited in an aquarium, had to be released after only three days due to health problems caused by captivity.

Protection Measures

There is no international moratorium on great white shark fishing, although it is banned in some areas of their range. This species is protected in:

• California
• East Coast of the United States
• Gulf of Mexico
• Namibia
• South Africa
• Maldives
• Israel
• Parts of Australia: including South Australia, New South Wales, Tasmania, and Queensland

The Barcelona Convention recognizes it as a threatened species in the Mediterranean, although few Mediterranean countries have implemented concrete conservation measures.

These efforts are crucial to ensuring the species' survival, given its role in maintaining marine ecosystem balance and the increasing threat from human activity.

Great White Shark's Immune System

Genome and Cancer

The genome of the great white shark has 2N=82 chromosomes, with a total length of 3.92 Gbp and about 24,500 predicted genes. About 58% of the genome consists of repetitive sequences. Compared to the human genome, which has 3.2 Gbp and 22,000 genes in 2N=46 chromosomes, Carcharodon carcharias shows remarkable genomic stability with around three million SNPs, compared to five million in humans. This genomic stability could explain the low incidence of cancer in great white sharks.

Defense Against Cancer

It has been observed that elasmobranchs, such as sharks, have a potential ability to avoid tumor development. However, systematic studies are lacking to confirm this capability. Genomic stability is crucial for cancer prevention as it protects DNA from exogenous and endogenous damage. Great white sharks have developed DNA repair and apoptosis regulation mechanisms that are more abundant than in other vertebrates. These include genes related to Wnt signaling and Tp53, essential in cell cycle control.

Histone Modifications and Genomics

The great white shark shows unique enrichment in histone modification sequences not seen in other elasmobranchs. These modifications, such as H2AX phosphorylation and H3K56 acetylation, are crucial in the DNA damage response, helping maintain genomic stability.

Cancer Therapy Research

Moreover, elasmobranch-derived tissue culture media have shown cytotoxic activity against human tumor cells, inducing apoptosis. Although more research is needed, these findings suggest that studying the cancer protection mechanisms in sharks could lead to new anticancer therapies.

The combination of genomic stability, advanced DNA repair mechanisms, and the presence of unique sequences in the great white shark makes it a fascinating model for future cancer research and longevity biology.

Skin Structure and Adaptations

The skin of great white sharks, similar to that of lemon sharks, is very tough due to its high degree of keratinization. This toughness provides an advantage against superficial wounds. The skin scales, known as dermal denticles, are tooth-shaped and arranged in an overlapping manner. This arrangement confers hydrodynamic benefits, reducing water friction and allowing for more efficient swimming with less energy expenditure.

The scales also feature nanoconformations of ridges and valleys, creating a hostile environment for bacteria due to the high energy expenditure required to survive on that surface. This design acts as an effective immunological barrier, reducing the risk of bacterial infections on the skin of the great white shark.

Wound Healing

The great white shark possesses genes that favor rapid wound healing, such as FGF, EXTL-2, and KRT18. The FGF gene encodes the protein Fibrinogen, crucial for blood clot formation. EXTL-2 is involved in the biosynthesis of heparan sulfate, important for blood vessel formation. KRT18 encodes a keratin that provides mechanical support and plays a role in wound healing.

Angiogenesis, or the formation of new blood vessels from an existing vascular network, is essential for healing. In this shark, the sequences of vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGF) and their receptor (VEGFR-2) are enriched. These factors promote blood vessel formation, supplying oxygen and nutrients to cells in the wound area and removing waste. Also enriched are sequences encoding for FGF (fibroblast growth factor) and EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor).

Do Great White Sharks Eat Humans? The Recorded Attacks

Contrary to popular belief, attacks by great white sharks on humans are rare. Compared to tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) and bull sharks (Carcharhinus leucas), attacks by great whites are anecdotal. Bull sharks, in particular, are known to travel up rivers like the Mississippi, Amazon, and Zambezi and attack people far from the sea. Deaths caused by these three species combined are fewer than those caused by sea snakes, crocodiles, bees, wasps, and even hippos. In reality, one is more likely to die from a heart attack at sea than from a shark attack.

Statistics and Comparisons

Biologist Douglas Long mentions that in the United States, more people have died from dog attacks than from great white sharks in the last hundred years. In the Mediterranean, there have been only 31 confirmed attacks in the last 200 years, most without fatalities. In Spain, four attacks have been recorded since the 19th century, but only two have been proven, and none resulted in deaths. Worldwide, 314 great white shark attacks have been documented since 1580.

Reasons for Attacks

Great white shark attacks are usually due to:

1. Confusion: The shark may mistake a human for its usual prey, such as seals or sea lions.
2. Curiosity: A "test bite" to determine if something is edible.
3. Warning: A warning attack if the shark feels threatened.

Avoiding Attacks

To avoid great white shark attacks, it is crucial not to take risks such as swimming too far from the shore, swimming alone, entering the ocean with bleeding wounds, swimming during dawn or dusk, visiting areas with a high concentration of pinnipeds, or deliberately approaching sharks. Various methods have been developed to avoid bites, such as chemical repellents, chain mail suits, and devices that generate electric fields to disorient sharks.

Attacks on Boats

Attacks on boats are rare but do occur. Of the 108 shark attacks reported on the Pacific coast during the 20th century, only five were against people in kayaks. In some cases, sharks have attacked boats up to 10 meters long, knocking people overboard, generally attacking from the stern.

The Great White Shark in Fiction: Movies, Videos, and Literature

Great white sharks are often depicted as embodiments of danger in various cultures and media. They are known as "man-eaters" in several languages, especially in the Caribbean. However, the modern idea of the great white shark as the ultimate marine killer was hugely popularized by the movie "Jaws" (1975) directed by Steven Spielberg, based on the novel by Peter Benchley (1974). The story is loosely inspired by the shark attacks in New Jersey in 1916, although it is likely that those attacks were the work of several sharks, not specifically great whites.

Jaws, the Movie

The movie "Jaws" established numerous clichés that are repeated in "killer monster" cinema. These clichés often do not reflect the true characteristics of the great white shark. Author Peter Benchley has stated that he would not have written the novel had he known more about the habits of great white sharks.

The commercial success of "Jaws" was immense, being the first movie to gross over a hundred million dollars and causing an increase in shark fear and a decrease in beach tourism. This fear also led to a massive hunt for great white sharks, affecting their populations.

List of Great White Shark Movies

The movie inspired several sequels and copies:

• Jaws (1975) directed by Steven Spielberg, originally called Jaws: a classic horror film featuring a great white shark terrorizing a small coastal town.
• Jaws 2 (1978) directed by Steven Spielberg: sequel to the original film, where a new shark once again threatens the coastal community.
• The Last Shark (1981): an Italian plagiarism of the original film.
• Jaws 3-D (1983): a giant shark attacks a water park. Continuation of the franchise where a great white wreaks havoc in an aquatic amusement park.
• Jaws: The Revenge (1987): the widow of Chief Brody is stalked by a shark.
• Deep Blue Sea directed by Renny Harlin: a science fiction film where a group of scientists experiments on sharks to find a cure for Alzheimer's, but the sharks escape and cause chaos in an underwater laboratory.
• Shark Attack (1999) and Shark Attack 2 (2001): TV productions about shark attacks.
• 12 Days Of Terror (2004) directed by Jack Sholder: a recreation of the 1916 shark attacks in New Jersey.
• The Cave (2005) directed by Bruce Hunt: a horror film featuring a team of divers who discover an underwater cave inhabited by great white sharks.
• 47 Meters Down (2005): two sisters get trapped in a diving cage at the bottom of the ocean with great white sharks stalking them.
• The Shallows (2016): a surfer is stranded a short distance from the shore with a great white shark stalking her.
• The Meg (2018): although not focused on great white sharks, this film features a megalodon, a giant prehistoric shark, that threatens a group of scientists at sea.
• Finding Nemo (2003) directed by Andrew Stanton and Lee Unkrich: the shark Bruce is a comedic vegetarian character.
• Shark Tale (2004) directed by Vicky Jenson, Bibo Bergeron, and Rob Letterman: features great white sharks as marine gangsters, with Don Lino and his vegetarian son Lenny.

Other Media

The success of "Jaws" has influenced numerous TV series, comics, and video games such as "Tomb Raider" and "Jaws: Unleashed." Other movies have replicated the formula using different species of sharks or marine animals.